Implicit Memory Usage and Application Areas

This study was conducted at Cankaya University Graduate School of Social Sciences Cognitive Psychology in 2019 under the supervision of Hande Kaynak, Ph.D.

I learned some information about implicit memory in the context of the “Memory Processes” lesson from Asst. Prof. Hande Kaynak. As a result of this information, I thought that implicit memory and its associated implicit learning can be studied for the of early childhood education. In line with this idea, I have identified the subject of term paper as implicit memory studies in early childhood education.

As a result of the literature review I made in this context, I did not find any studies that focused specifically on the subject. However, I have seen a trend increase after 2006 on the subject of “implicit learning” in the sciencedirect search. I came across 105,478 results defined by this keyword. “Early childhood education” in the same source in my research in the study without any trend increase, I found 98,075 study.

In this article, I will try to convey the implicit memory, implicit learning studies and implicit learning practices in the context of early childhood education.

Implicit Memory

Implicit memory is expressed as a cognitive structure that, with its most general definition, provides performance improvement without the need for deliberate use of old experiences (Roediger, 1990). In the researches, it was determined that the implicit memory structure was dissociated from the explicit memory. For example, in a cognitive phenomenon called “the picture superiority effect” it was stated that words and pictures differ in terms of remembering performance in explicit and implicit memory tests (Weldon & Roediger, 1987).

When we examine the history of implicit memory, there is a long philosophical, ideological and scientific searches that is based on Rene Descartes. Descartes, who prevents the science of psychology from being crushed by religion with dualist theory, in his book The Passions of the Soul that published in 1649, did not give any detailed information about the results of this concept, although he used a phrase similar to today’s implicit memory (Perry & Laurance, 1984, as cited by Schacter, 1987; Haldane & Ross, 1967, as cited by Schacter, 1987). In the first decade of the 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz made an emphasis on like-implicit memory in the philosophical arena. The most striking point in his statement was that in some cases some of the events that we do not remember actually had an impact on our lives (Leibniz, 1916; as cited by Schacter, 1987). Although the relevant transmissions of Gottfried Leibniz were accepted by some people, he remained dull at that time because of the dominance of his contemporaries, the British associationists. While some ideas such as John Locke, David Hume, John Stuart Mill and David Hartley were working on memory and expressing their opinions, these studies were concentrated in the same way as Charles Darwin’s that about explicit memory (Schacter, 1987; Darwin, 1794, as cited by Schacter, 1987). After Gottfried Leibniz, in 1804, Maine de Biran wrote a thesis titled The Influence of Habit on the Faculty of Thinking, where he made some discussions on implicit memory (Maine de Biran, 1929; as cited by Schacter, 1987). The most important point to be emphasized in this study and the views of Maine de Biran is the continuity of automatic and unconscious behavior depending on repetition. Maine de Biran also designed three different types of memory: The representative of the delegate consciously took part in the recalling of memories, events and ideas about the past. The mechanical and the sensitive ones are largely represented as unconscious and implicit memory structures (Schacter, 1987). Although Maine de Biran was the first to represent the current multiple memory system and had ideas that influenced important researchers such as Pierre Janet and Henry Bergson, his ideas at that time were only known within the borders of France (Ellenberger, 1970; as cited by Schacter, 1987). The philosophical approaches and implications of implicit memory have stalled until the 19th century physiologist-biologist scientists, with the exception of studies by Johann Friedrich Herbart, who is an exception (Schacter, 1987).

When the 19th century thinkers and researchers are examined, the first name that stands out is the British physiologist William Carpenter. William Carpenter noted that some functions lacking awareness in the context of the brain and mind were also realized, conceptualizing them as “unconscious cerebration” (Carpenter, 1874; as cited by Schacter, 1987). William Carpenter followed an unifying approach by physiology and psychology rather than a dualist approach of Rene Descartes (Schacter, 1987). In almost the same period, in 1870, but in Vienna, another place in the world, a physiologist named Ewald Hering put forward a number of ideas on organic / unconscious memory (Hering, 1920; as cited by Schacter, 1987). Many physiologists, psychologists, philosophers, medical doctors, or other relevant researchers, based on Ewald Hering’s ideas, continued to develop ideas on organic memory (Schacter, 1987).

When the 19th-century period of the historical perspective is examined, it is seen that the systematic and scientific approach on implicit memory is gathered on five main headings: Psychical research, neurology, psychiatry, philosophy and experimental psychology (Schacter, 1987).

In this perspective, the most shocking area is psychical research. Although modern scientists do not agree, the practices of psychic researchers / practitioners or typical psychics over the globe, such as crystal ball gazing or automatic writing, have established a basis for today’s implicit memory studies (Schacter, 1987).

When the neurological studies on implicit memory were reviewed, it was observed that the first study, which was noteworthy, was reported by British physician Robert Dunn in 1845. In the case study by Robert Dunn, it is observed that the woman who is about to drown and has a long period of unconsciousness has been reported to have gained some operational skills in the amnesic situation that she has experienced after her experience (Dunn, 1845; as cited by Schacter, 1987). However, it can be seen that Robert Dunn did not discuss the results of this situation in detail (Schacter, 1987). Following Robert Dunn, Sergei Korsakoff, a physician of Russian origin, has now examined cases of amnesic syndrome referred to by his name. As a result of these reviews, Sergei Korsakoff reported that there were no explicit memory function of amnesic cases, but Sergei Korsakoff implicitly stated that a number of implicit memory functions had occurred (Korsakoff, 1889; as cited by Schacter, 1987). A few decades later, the Swiss neurologist and child psychologist Edouard Claparéde also reported a similar case to Korsakoff. In this case, a woman who pricked her with a pin in her past experience avoided shaking hands even if she did not remember explicitly (as cited by Schacter, 1987).

An examination of the implications on implicit memory in the psychiatric arena reveals that the most basic case studies on this subject were reported by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet, who collaborated with Joseph Brauer at the end of the 19th century. These cases are similar to studies in the neurological field and relate to some trauma-based conditions in which amnesic patients live implicitly (Janet, 1893 / 1904; as cited by Schacter, 1987). The hysterical cases reported by Freud and Breuer (1966) were similar to those reported by Janet. Although Sigmund Freud had some disagreements in the future, Sigmund Freud always argued that unconscious memory structures had a strong influence on behavior (Ellenberger, 1970; as cited by Schacter, 1987).

In the 19th century philosophical work, the most fundamental contribution to implicit memory came from Henri Bergson in In Matter and Memory (Bergson, 1911, as cited by Schacter, 1987). Henri Bergson never mentioned Maine de Biran in his book, although the transcripts in this book were similar to Maine de Biran’s view as a multiple memory model (Schacter, 1987).

When the studies conducted in the context of experimental psychology before the 20th century are examined, it is seen that there is not much interest in the subject of implicit memory. However, there are a few exceptions in experimental psychology studies in this period, as in any other subject (Schacter, 1987). For example, Ebbinghaus, in his book Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (1885), acknowledges that not all structures that make up the memory processes can be explained by conscious processes. Ebbinghaus also made an empirical contribution to the field over the period of recall of items (Slamecka, 1985a / 1985b, Tulving, 1985; as cited by Schacter, 1987). The saving paradigm developed by Ebbinghaus can be seen as a successful paradigm for the period it lived, although it is not a complete method of implicit memory measurement, in fact from today’s knowledge, methodology studies and academic point of view (Schacter, 1987). The three main headings of the work done after Ebbinghaus can actually be thought of as implicit memory. The first of these is related to the fact that subjects were able to learn something implicitly by Thorndike and without the explicitly defined or set of rules for them (Thorndike and Rock, 1934; as cited by Schacter, 1987). Second, Peotzl’s work came to the fore as an implicit memory-measuring paradigm that uses pictures that contain some serious medological deficiencies (Poetzl, 1960; as cited by Schacter, 1987). Thirdly, a subject that has not been included in the field of experimental psychology at now has been studied: Hypnosis. In the studies conducted by Clark Hull and his students, some measurements and findings similar to amnesic cases have been reported in the case of hypnosis (Hull, 1933; as cited by Schacter, 1987). At the end of the first quarter of the 20th century, the book that Outline of Psychology was written by the British researcher William McDougall and was the first to expressly represent the memory. In this book, William McDougall used the first operational statements about the concepts that are now expressed as implicit memory and open memory units (McDougall, 1924; as cited by Schacter, 1987).

After this historical sequence, the following can be summarized as a summary of implicit memory studies: Implicit memory is actually being studied using or without the use of terminology from the dualist theory and indirectly from the Rene Descartes, the cornerstone of the science of psychology, and today it is mentioned in the introduction of both implicit memory and implicit learning. It is an active study area which can be supported with the results of literature review. In order to support implicit memory studies in the context of experimental methodology, a number of experimental paradigms are used, such as a cued recall test.

Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education; — regardless of what kind of psychology glasses and cultural framework, is an important study topic with individual — psychological, social — sociological and public — administrative consequences. Because, as it is known from the current psychology textbooks, although human development lasts a lifespan, many traces of a person’s childhood are both explicit and implicit in his future — as stated in a famous Turkish proverb “İnsan yedisinde ne ise yetmişinde de odur”.

As stated in a study report of National Research Council (2000) on early childhood education, the skill development in children is divided into three categories: Cognitive skills, school readiness, and social and emotional development. Considering this subject economically, IQ comes to the forefront as cognitive skills, and in particular as a printed output of cognitive skills (Currie, 2001).

As it is known, although there is no absolute causality relationship between IQ and success in future life, if the symptoms of intelligence in childhood are supported with a good education and training program, it will predict the success in future life positively. However, although we know that children with a certain potential intelligence may be blinded if they do not have the opportunity to develop this intelligence, we cannot be sure that the same thing happens for the opposite. In other words, we do not know whether the intelligence level of a child with average intelligence can be increased by external intervention. At the same time, as is known, intelligence scores are quite obvious in manipulation and may lead to erroneous data due to various confounding variables in the short term (Currie, 2001). In the short term, it is easy to provide a misleading increase in IQ scores, which was reported by Zigler and Berman in an eight-week summer course and a 10-point increase in intelligence score was reported (Zigler & Berman, 1983; as cited by Currie, 2001). Due to the uncertainty in the development of intelligence scores and intelligence, studies focused on educating a successful individual, society and state in the future have focused on the context of early childhood education.

According to the findings of a study by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching conducted with pre-school teachers in 1991, it was shown that the assessment of teachers was expressed as only 65% of the children were prepared to receive education (as cited by Currie, 2001). Although many citizens here think that the concept of readiness to education is cognitive skills, the truth is not exactly so. In fact, the skills that are meant to be prepared for learning have already been expressed physically healthy, rested, adequately fed, verbally expressing their needs and wishes, being able to express their wishes and curiosity towards new activities and to pay attention to the current situation (as cited by Currie, 2001).

According to the Carnegie Foundation’s report in 1991, social and emotional skills play a role as well as cognitive skills to predict future successful individuals (as cited by Currie, 2001). Especially the lack of behavioral problems and the development of skills such as self-control play a high role as far as cognitive skills for successful generations (Lee et al., 1990; Heckman, Hsse and Rubinstein, 2000; as cited by Currie, 2001). In fact, this is not surprising, because we know that for a skill learning, one must first be “exactly there”, that is, to focus carefully.

We can conclude from these conclusions about intelligence and another factors about successful society, although intelligence and cognitive skills may make a case of future generations of successful and productive, it is not clearly shown that it is possible to make changes on intelligence; It is seen that concepts such as self-control which are a successful predictor of success at least intelligence are important for early childhood education programs (Rodriguez, Mischel & Shoda, 1989; as cited by Currie, 2001). This is precisely why self-control is an important part of early childhood education.

Implicit Memory Applications in Early Childhood Education

Although people think that the learning function is a planned and conscious process especially when it comes to academic studies, in fact most of the learning is realized unconsciously and automatically. The concept of implicit learning which can be simply described as “learning devoid of awareness” has been a research subject for nearly fifty years and, has gained momentum since the second millennium. In this context, there are some empirical, computational and neuropsychological confirmatory studies that actually support implicit learning, as reported by Cleeremans and his colleagues (Cleeremans, Destrebecqz & Boyer, 1998).

Neuroscience, although it seems like a new scientific subject, can lead to a good experimental method, which gives a very rigid and clear result, and a good relationship, although it creates a problem in establishing a causal relationship. For this reason, it is evident that there will be some opinions and suggestions about education, as well as human and humanity (Goswami, 2004). But as I mentioned in the introduction, there is no study addressing this subject specifically. In the sciencedirect review conducted under the title that “Implicit Memory Applications in Early Childhood Education” hood, a total of 1,656 studies were listed which occupied a relatively low share compared to other study areas. In this context, I will try to explain the information I have obtained as much as I can. I do not want to talk about the methodical details of studies and the other works that I will pass and do not want to do word pollution.

The concept of implicit learning, which is a cognitive term and which can be considered as an extension of implicit memory in the multiple memory taxonomy, was first introduced to the literature in 1967 with Arthur Reber (Reber, 1967). However, it is important to note that implicit learning is not synonymous with implicit memory, even if they have a high level of relationship with each other. While the details of this issue are not important in this context, in summary we can say that, as Squire points out, learning is the process of acquiring a new knowledge, while memory refers to the continuity of learning (Squire, 1987).

In the study designed by the researchers working in Belgium and France in 1998, the serial reaction time task was tested to determine whether implicit memory skills differ in children 6 and 10 years of age (Meulemans, Van der Linden & Perruchet, 1998). According to the study findings, no significant difference was found between the two groups. It was stated by the researchers that this finding actually points to the knowledge that implicit learning ability is an important concept at an earlier age than it is thought.

A study by Yale University researchers in 1998 examined whether the general context was effective in visual tasks (Chun & Yung, 1998). According to the findings of the study, it was found that the stage and task context were significantly effective in terms of visual stimulus and relationship conditions. However, the point that should be emphasized here is that the study sample was obtained entirely from university students.

As a neuropathology study, the research conducted by a team of five in 2003 aimed to compare the developmental learning disorder sample with the control group on implicit memory performance (Vicari et al., 2003). According to the findings of the study, some disorders in implicit learning skills of dyslexic patients were determined. However, although such a difference has occurred in response times, it did not occur during declerative knowledge.

In a study conducted in 2007, it was examined whether the use of gesture as an implicit learning method has an impact on child students’ mathematics performance (Broaders et al., 2007). As the findings of the study show, children who associate a gesture with the math problem and recognize new math problems with this method have been significantly more successful in solving the math problem than the control group. I’ve been interested in this topic and I made detailed searches, but I could not find any continuation work in this context.

Although it is not directly related to the subject, I would like to mention a study comparing the effect of sleep on consolidation in children and adults. According to a study conducted by MIT researchers in 2007, sleep was found to be an age-related differentiation, especially on implicit learning (Fischer, Wilhelm & Born, 2007). According to the study report, the effect of sleep on implicit learning consolidation is higher in child participants than in adult participants. As a fact that already reads public spots, a finding related to cognitive and implicit memory can be expressed in order for children to sleep at an adequate level.

A physical education study conducted in Oslo in 2010 yielded some conclusions that emphasized the importance of implicit learning in children (Ommundsen, 2010). According to the results of this study, it is stated that students need to integrate both cognitive and motivational processes in order to have a stronger self-regulation during physical education between thirteen and fourteen years of age.

The most detailed study on this subject, though not realized on mostly children, belongs to a doctoral dissertation at Harvard University (Kalra, 2015). Based on cognitive sciences Priya Kalra, now a doctor, has sought to establish a rigid connection between cognitive neuroscience outcomes and educational models. In the context of the thesis, the researcher designed two experimental studies and reported the results. In these studies, she examined both individual differences and developmental differences on implicit learning. In her study, which examined the implicit memory applications on children and adults with the first study in the context of artifical grammar learning, he reported age-related changes, although he mentioned some important methodological errors. According to the results of this study, it can be said that adult participants generally have higher implicit learning skills compared to children participants. In the second study of the thesis, she tested whether the implicit learning skills change according to the psychometric properties of 70 university students. In this study, significant correlations were found between individual characteristics such as intelligence and implicit memory acquisition (Kalra, 2015).

Conclusion

You don’t want us to speculate as clearly as you can in the document that “How to write a term paper?”, but I feel inadequate about how to integrate such a subject without speculation. If I had fulfilled my responsibilities in a timely manner, how nice it would be if I had been supervised on this issue… The combination of a newly started business life and postgraduate education, honestly caused me to be unable to take what I wanted for my reasons. Therefore, I am saddened and embarrassed to say that this section will consist of consistent speculation in itself and perhaps a flow of information, which is an associative result of my implicit memory and learning.

The main conclusion that I wanted to reach in this term paper was this: There is a subject called “implicit memory” which has been done for centuries directly or indirectly. This subject has been studied with both experimental methodology and “fortune-telling”. At the same time, almost all kinds of physical, developmental, medical, psychological, sociological, perhaps mechanical theory meets the common denominator: Tree leans when wet. The sooner a software developer finds the error in the system, the better. The sooner a parent places a rule on the child, the better. The sooner an educator starts to educate his student, the better. In the common curriculum, the lowest level in the education level of the work takes early childhood education.

As far as I’ve observed from my surroundings and I’ve experienced in my personal life, it works with a typical input-output system so to speak to children in this age group. They don’t question too much, don’t think too much, don’t do too much cognitive processing — if I’m wrong and children in this age group think and do cognitive processing, they do so by using a very small potential of their systems — we don’t understand. At the same time, this age group is more enthusiastic about actually discovering human cubs, recognizing the world they live in and making them meaningful. Therefore, in the training for this age group and in the curriculum for educational purposes, we can encourage children to lead a quality life and become a quality individual, rather than formal and open memory, which will break children’s enthusiasm or restrict freedom, that would make them unhappy. We can accomplish this in both our personal and professional lives using the implicit memory work and the data and programs obtained from the classical-operational conditioning literature. In this way, instead of individuals who follow all directives clearly and unconsciously, we can get individuals who are able to question and evaluate the directives, whose processes they automate are at a lower level and who have increased their potential as quality of life and sociological and state administration.

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